2024年6月7日发(作者：)
Case 1: P17
The shipping agent is serving the customers in the way that is considered
efficient in Venezuelan culture. To the Canadian, however, this is unfocused
activity that is not nearly as efficient as it would be — particularly from her
point of view — if the agent simply dealt exclusively with her scheduled
appointment. In Canada, businesspeople typically write appointments and
activities into the day’s agenda every day. They then work sequentially
through the agenda until they have completed each task or the day is over. In
other words, Canadians prefer to do one thing at a time, while the South
Americans, including Venezuelans, tend to do a few things simultaneously.
Case 2:
As a Westerner, the American visiting professor does not quite understand
the collective ownership of information in some other cultural environments.
What made her annoyed is a different attitude toward information about
people. In the United States, it is generally assumed that personal matters are
private. Teachers go through elaborate procedures to assure that students do
not have access to each other’s grades. In business it is the same. Evaluations
are confidential.
Case 3:
As a matter of fact, the American woman was not being disrespectful.
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However, it is clear that her way of showing respect and welcome was
different from the ancient tradition of keeping physical distance from
superiors, which is still widely observed, especially when royalty is involved.
Paul Keating, the Australian prime minister, may have intended to suggest
by his gesture that Australia would no longer accept the queen as head of
state but just as one of their honored guests. Obviously, the British would not
like it at all.
Sometimes, such seemingly trivial things can influence relations between
countries. That’s why protocol is taken seriously and people who are be given
detailed and careful instructions.
Case 4: P37
We Chinese are known for our hospitality. For example, when a Chinese
family has a house guest, especially a close relative or a friend from far away,
like a foreigner, the guest automatically becomes the focus of the whole
family’s attention. The hosts treat their guest to the best food they can
afford and tailor the family menu to their guest’s taste. Sometimes either the
host or hostess asks for leave from work to take their guest sightseeing.
Americans, however, welcome their guests by taking them in as one of
themselves, part of the family, without giving them any special attention.
Westerners may feel at home with this, but Asians are not used to it and may
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misinterpret it as neglect.
Case 5:
Cultural difference necessarily implies different assumptions about
natural and obvious ways to be polite.
To the American, politeness requires talk between strangers forced to
share a booth in a cafeteria, if only a fleeting “Do you mind if I sit down?” or
a conventional “Is anyone sitting here?” even if it’s obvious no one is. The
omission of such talk seemed to her like dreadful rudeness. The American
couldn’t see that another system of politeness was at work. (She could see
nothing but red.) By not acknowledging her presence, the British couple freed
her from the obligation to acknowledge theirs. The American expected a show
of involvement; the British were being polite by not imposing.
Case 6:
The Chinese traditional value placed upon modesty, humility, and reserve
can often be misunderstood by Westerners, whose cultures are very different.
One of the most serious difficulties for people involved in intercultural
communication is that they are not only prone to misinterpret the intentions
of those from other cultural backgrounds, but, as in this case, their own
behavior is also open to serious misinterpretation. The result is that they not
only take offense, but frequently give it quite unintentionally. This sort of
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embarrassment and misunderstanding may often occur in interactions
between members of different cultures if they are not fully aware of such
differences in the way they behave verbally and non-verbally.
Case 7: P63
When the Canadian young man said, "Who took my peanut butter?" what
he really meant was "Where is my peanut butter? I can’t find it. "The Chinese
doctor felt accused and upset because in Chinese culture questions like this,
especially expressed in the way the young Canadian man did, often imply that
someone is to blame. Chinese culture prohibits direct accusation unless a
person has been targeted for shame. However, true to her learned cultural
behavior of never showing anger in public, the Chinese doctor didn’t say
anything, though she was deeply distressed.
Later, the physiotherapist was making a joke when she said the Chinese
doctor had "three hands". She wasn’t serious, of course, and expected the
patient to be amused by her fanciful explanation for his pain: that the doctor
on the other side of the room could have reached an imaginary third hand out
to touch him. She didn’t know that in Chinese a "third-handed person" is
slang for a thief.
Case 8:
In American culture, people’s personal goals take priority over their
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allegiance to groups like the family or the employer. The loyalty of individuals
to a given group is usually weak. Americans are apt to change their
relationship if it suits their individual needs, and they are not likely to be
emotionally dependent on organizations and institutions.
In Japanese society, the relationship between an employee and the firm is
much more interdependent, somewhat similar to a child-mother relationship
where the mother (firm) is obliged to take care of her children (employees)
and children (employees) have to obey and follow the commands of their
mother (firm).
It is not surprising for an American to try to find another job before he or
she leaves his or her present employer if he or she considers it necessary for
him- or herself. However, this action was regarded by the Japanese firm as
disloyal, undermining the trust between the two parties. In spite of this, the
manager of the firm did not like the parting to be understood as Brent being
fired, because the appearance of harmony and agreement within the group
(the firm in this case) is important in Japanese society.
Case 9:
When they were being scolded by the trainers for being repeatedly late for
afternoon sessions, the Chinese trainees felt bewildered because they thought
it inappropriate for the Canadian trainers to become so angry about it. In their
opinion, one should not let him- or herself behave as emotionally like this. The
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appropriate way to deal with such a person would be to become cooler toward
and more distant from the person who behaved so irresponsibly. It was
understandable that one would feel angry in this situation but it was not
appropriate to show anger, for the other person would certainly lose face if
anger were directed toward him or her, and the angry person would look
foolish and childish and therefore would also lose face.
Canadians see such situations in a very different way. They tend to
explicitly express how they feel and openly criticize the person who they think
has been wrong or irresponsible. It seems to them that this has little to do with
face.
Case 10: P85
The conflict here is a different in culture values and beliefs. In the
beginning, Mary didn’t realize that her Dominican sister saw her as a
member of the family. In the Dominican view, family possessions are shared by
everyone in the family. Luz was acting as most Dominican sisters would do in
borrowing without asking every time. Once Mary understood that there was a
different way of looking at this, she would become more accepting. However,
she might still experience the same frustration when this happened again. She
had to find ways to cope with her own emotional cultural reaction as well as
her practical problem (the batteries running out).
Case 11:
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Some people may argue that the people the saleswoman deals with are in
the United States and therefore should adapt to American practices. However,
with that attitude, the woman would not reach her customers, who are from
East Asian countries. As a result, her business success would be limited. Her
ability to communicate in East Asian languages and at the same time
understand the cultural background of her clients makes her successful. For
instance, by entering into long-term relationships with those Asian people,
she has more business opportunities.
Case 12:
Just as a saying goes, "One man’s meat is another man’s poison." What
we Chinese love to eat, such as sea cucumbers and some animal parts, may be
regarded as awful by Americans, and what Americans prefer to have, for
instance, spaghetti or baked beans, may not be appreciated by Chinese at all.
It is possible that both Chinese and Americans may enjoy the same food, but
how to cook and eat it will still be very different.
When we Chinese people invite guests for dinner, we would usually do an
elaborate meat, with as many as eight or ten courses, making sure there will
be more than enough food on the table. Often the courses will be brought to
the table one after another. So the host and hostess may have to be busy
cooking when the dinner has already started. In contrast, a very typical
American meal will begin with drinks and some small items of food known as
appetizers. It usually features large amounts of a small number of dishes,
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served all at the same time. Americans prefer to get everything ready before
the guests arrive. By our Chinese standards, an American meal often appears
to be too casual and simple to entertain one’s guests.
Case 13: P116
In this case, the old Chinese man found it unnecessary to put into words
anything about his tiredness, because the situation — the meeting in an
airport at night, his long journey, his age — communicated the obvious.
However, for Americans, this has to be put into words to be
communicated to others.
Case 14:
The Turkish student was relying on the context of the communication for
the message to be understood. But the American student did not attribute any
such meaning to his words, for, in American culture, such meaning has to be
explicitly expressed rather than implied by the context.
Case 15:
In this case, Judith thought that memos would provide an accurate record
of information for her client in China, but was unaware that in Chinese culture
memos are impersonal and could be interpreted as a means distancing the
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personal relationship. Her failure to understand a different culture led her to
be misunderstood and distrusted by her Chinese client.
Case 16: P141
What went wrong in this case? Contrary to general American perception, it
is considered proper behavior for Japanese to be silent. It is a discreet way to
show respect if he listens to others speak rather than speaking out. So the
Japanese delegates did what they considered proper, i.e., listen quietly to what
the Americans had to say. Silence often means that they are seriously thinking
about the subject at issue. But many Americans will interpret silence in a
conversation to mean disapproval, disagreement, or even arrogance. This is an
example that illustrates the problem of the so-called "perception-gap".
Participants in communication perceive each other’s behavior in very
different ways, which often results in misunderstanding or conflict.
Case 17:
It is customary in China and many other Asian countries for hosts to ask
their guests again and again to take more. Tom didn’t have to eat extra food
if he didn’t want any more.
In the U.S., a host will offer more food usually only once. And the
Americans will take a "no" to mean "no", whether, it is the first, second, or
third time. However, in many other parts of the world it is considered good
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manners for guests not to accept an offer at first. Sometimes one mustn’t
accept food the second time it is offered. Therefore hosts will try to repeat an
offer until they are sure that their guests really want to decline.
Case 18:
Ted Washington, the marketing manager, rejected the sale proposals of
both the American, Dale Peters, and the Japanese, Hideo Takahashi, without
considering who made the proposal. While the direct and outright rejection is
O.K. with Peters, for he and the manager are from the same culture, to Hideo,
it means something beyond the rejection of a proposal itself. Therefore the
two people responded to the rejection in quite different ways.
In this case, the American believes the root of the conflict lay in different
goals and objectives, therefore, Peters entered into a heated discussion with
Ted, trying to get his proposal accepted by producing facts, figures, and
graphs to illustrate his case. But the Japanese believes the conflict was not in
the rejection of the proposal but rather in the way it was communicated, so he
thinks of it as a personal attack or a sign of mistrust. In short, Americans tend
to be more task-oriented while the Japanese are more likely to focus on
interpersonal relationship.
Case 19: P166
Addressing is just one of those seemingly small things in which cultures
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differ greatly. There are significant differences in how people of different
cultures view titles. Americans, in contrast not only to Asians but to many
Europeans, tend to regard titles as trivial unless they give a clear idea of the
kind of work a person does and what his responsibilities are. But Asian people
always seem expected to let you know what they are, for example, "senior
engineer". For Americans it is what you actually do that counts, not where you
are in organizational hierarchy. The Americans treat titles like "vice president
for marketing" and "sales manager" as meaningful. But they will not use them
to address a person, even reduced to "manager" or "vice president".
Besides, Americans don’t like excessive formality, and to some
Americans any formality at all can seem excessive. Young employees are free
to call older, even much older, co-workers by their first names. This may sound
intimate to non-Americans, but it is so commonplace in the US that it
connotes nothing at all about their relations.
In this case, there might be an ironic conclusion: the Thai may eventually
agree unwillingly to call the supervisor by his first name, but it will still be a
confirmation of the higher-status person’s right to demand compliance. The
misunderstanding will go underground.
Case 20:
Rogelio Diaz-Guerrero, a Mexican psychologist, offers his explanation of
this Mexican behavior pattern. According to him, there are two kinds of
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"realities" which must be distinguished, objective and interpersonal. Some
cultures tend to treat everything in terms of the objective sort of reality: this is
characteristic of the United States. Other cultures tend to treat things in terms
of interpersonal relations, and this is true of Mexico.
Viewed from the Mexican perspective, a visitor asks somebody for
information which that person doesn’t know. But wanting to make the visitor
happy and to enjoy a few pleasant moments together, the Mexican who was
asked does his best to say something so that for a short while the visitor is
made happy. Perhaps in all cultures the truth is sometimes altered slightly to
soften the impact of a harsh truth or to show deference to one’s superior. It is
the range of situations in which this occurs in Mexico and the relatively
sharper contrast of "truth-telling" standards in U.S. Mexican encounters that
is so notable.
Case 21:
This is one of the more well-known cases of difference between the
intended meaning and the assumed meaning that has led to serious
misunderstanding in human history.
We tend to think that the words and texts in one language can be
accurately translated into another as long as we have a good bilingual
dictionary at hand. We may not be fully aware of the fact that word-for-word
correspondences do not exist and what appear to be synonyms may not be
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equivalent.
Case 22: P191
People from different cultures may consider their own communication
style to be natural and normal, and therefore tend to evaluate other style
negatively. In this case, both people are unaware of the American preference
for a direct and explicit style in contrast to the more contextual African style.
Both these communicators are likely to leave the situation less inclined to ask
or answer questions of each other again.
Case 23:
In France it is required that all calls begin with an apology for disturbing
the answerer. They are also expected to begin the call by checking that they
have reached the right number, identifying themselves, and then chatting with
whoever has answered the phone, if this person is known to them. Only after
some conversation may callers indicate their wish to speak with the person
they have actually called to speak to.
In contrast, callers in the U.S.A. apologize only when they feel they have
called at an inappropriate time; they often ask for the person they want
without identifying themselves or conversing with the answerer, even when
that person is known to them; and they behave, in general, as though the
person who has answered the phone is just an extension of the instrument
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itself.
Case 24:
The Japanese have a strong dislike of entering into direct confrontations
and placing others in an embarrassing position. It is very difficult for a
Japanese to respond to any suggestion or request with a definite "no". What
the Japanese will often do instead is resort to a vague sort of reply to the
effect that the matter needs further study and consideration. They do this to
save face for the person who has made the suggestion or request, but
Americans may not properly understand it and may completely misinterpret
the vagueness as compliance and assume that the proposition has been
accepted. But this was apparently never made clear to Nixon. That is why he
concluded that he had been double-crossed. The misunderstanding had
serious adverse consequences for Japanese-U.S. relations.
Case 25: P213
Nonverbal behaviors such as smiles seem to cut across cultural lines. But
in reality, they are often found to be not universal. To most Americans, a smile
is the most common nonverbal behavior to bridge gaps that may exist
between strangers (including foreigners) and themselves. It is natural for
them to be smiling and friendly when they come across strangers. But in
eastern Asian countries like Japan, smiles are used differently. Japanese do not
readily show emotion, especially to strangers. They are conditioned to use the
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face to conceal rather than reveal their feelings. In Japan, people do not
usually smile at a stranger. If you do, you might be considered impolite.
Case 26:
Chinese people seldom hug each other, particularly in public places. If
people do, a romantic message is usually conveyed. Go to any airport or train
station in China, and you will see scenes of greeting and good-bye with all the
feelings expressed in the eyes and the face and in the practical things family
members and relatives and friends do for each other, but it is unlikely people
will hug, with only younger ones as an exception.
In contrast, people of Latin American cultures touch each other in
communication much more than people of some other cultures, especially
Eastern Asian cultures. At a time of meeting a friend or upon departing,
hugging each other is very natural for Latin American people. On such
occasions, hugging has no sexual connotation: it is just like a handshake in
China, but warmer and more enthusiastic. Women tend to hug each other
more than men hug women, but both are common. One’s discomfort at
hugging in such situations may be interpreted by Latin American people as
unfriendliness.
Case 27:
As with smiling, laughing does not always serve the same function in
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different cultures. Interestingly, for as Chinese, laughing often has a special
function during tense social occasions. People may laugh to release the
tension or embarrassment, to express their concern for you, their intention to
put you at ease or to help you shrug off embarrassment. In this case, the
people there actually wished to laugh with the American rather than at him.
Their laughing seemed to convey a number of messages: don’t take it so
seriously; laugh it off, it is nothing; such things can happen to any of us, etc.
Unfortunately the American was unaware of this. He thought they were
laughing at him, which made him feel more embarrassed and angry, for in his
culture laughing on such an occasion would be interpreted as an insulting
response, humiliating and negative.
Case 28: P238
For people from American and western European cultures, time should be
scheduled into segments or compartments which are to be kept discrete from
one another. They prefer to do one thing at a time. They get annoyed when
they have made an appointment with somebody, only to find a lot of other
things going on at the same time. They don’t like to interrupt others or be
interrupted by others while they are doing something. In contrast, people
from many other cultures, including the Chinese culture, are more likely to
operate with several people, ideas, or matters simultaneously. They are more
easily distracted and subject to interruptions, which they don’t usually mind
very much.
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Case 29:
We Chinese people usually attach great importance to taking good care of
our guests. We often go out of our way to make a guest feel comfortable, and
our kindness often knows no bounds when it comes to a foreign visitor. But
Westerners, including North Americans, are trained to spend time alone and
to do things by themselves from the time they are still very young. Therefore,
they may feel uncomfortable when they are always surrounded by people
attempting to be kind to them. Hospitality itself may be something universal,
but the form and amount of hospitality differ greatly from culture to culture.
Case 30:
This case illustrates a cross-cultural misunderstanding of a very subtle
aspect of culture. How close an individual can get to another while talking is,
to a large extent, dictated by one’s culture? It is said that most middle-class
North Americans choose a normal conversational distance of no closer than
twenty-two inches from each other’s mouth. However, for people of certain
South American and Caribbean cultures, the distance is approximately fifteen
inches, while still other cultures (in the Middle East) maintain a distance of
nine to ten inches.
The problem that occurred between the Latin American and the New York
City policeman was that their respective cultures had different ideas about
spatial distancing. The Latin American was attempting to establish what for
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him was a comfortable conversational distance. Unfortunately, the policeman
felt threatened because his personal space, as defined by his culture, was
being violated. Had either of them understood this cultural behavior
difference, the breakdown in communication and the arrest could have been
avoided.
Case 37 P310:
The U.S. salesman in this case was acting according to ideas about dress
that seemed appropriate to him in his culture. He may have considered the
informality of his dress as signaling a willingness to put aside rigid rules of
behavior and be friendly. He may have been cold and enjoyed the warmth of a
large sweater. He may have spent the previous 20 hours on plane and, without
a chance to change his clothes, may have gone straight to the trade show,
because, to him, being there was more important than being dressed a certain
way. But in the Japanese culture, this kind of dress is considered very
inappropriate for such a formal business occasion.
Case 38:
In a country where there are very strict cultural taboos on nudity, such
packaging would be considered a form of obscenity. The U.S. firm had to pay a
high price for not understanding the culture of their customers.
Religion usually plays an important role in influencing customs, people’s
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attitudes towards life, what and how to buy and so on. More seriously, people
may even refuse to buy certain products or services for religious reasons. So it
is no wonder that a common and well-received product in one culture may
meet its waterloo in another culture.
According to the Geert Hofstede analysis of Saudi Arabia, the Muslim faith
plays a significant role in people’s lives. For example, Saudi Arabians should
never show bare shoulders, stomach, calves or thighs. Despite the heat, most
of the body must always remain covered. Men should wear long pants and a
shirt, preferably long-sleeved, buttoned up to the collar. Women should
always wear modest clothing in public. Therefore, how could it be possible for
Saudi customs officials to accept a package with a picture of a male modeling
briefs and allow it to be displayed in plain sight of Saudi women and children?
If the U.S. knitwear firm had been aware of the Muslim faith before their
packaging, they would not have suffered a loss of thousands of dollars. This
case demonstrates to us that moral standards vary from country to country.
Thus when doing international trade, one should never take his own religion
and moral standards for granted but should always bear those differences in
mind.
Case 39:
In this case, what is at issue is the correct translation for terms, as well as
the accepted use of terms in the chicken trade. Oliver Holmes, a famous judge
in the United States, said that "the making of a contract depends not on the
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agreement of two minds of one intension, but on the agreement of two sets of
external signs-----not on the parties` having meant the same thing but on
their having said the same thing."
The meaning of chicken in Swiss culture is different from that in America.
In this case, the failure was caused by the misunderstanding of the different
meanings of chicken in each other’s culture. In Swiss, chicken has a specific
meaning, while in America this term is used for any type of chicken.
As the case went to trial in the U.S., it was judged according to the
American culture, which seems unfair. However, unawareness of these cultural
differences will definitely result in problems in intercultural communication.
Case 40: P333
Japanese people value order and harmony among people in a group, and
the organization itself—be it a family or a corporation—is more valued than
the characteristics of any particular member. Americans stress individuality as
a value and are apt to assert individual differences when they seem justifiably
in conflict with the goals or values of the group.
In this case, Richard’s mistake was in making great efforts to defend
himself. Let the others assume that the errors were not intentional, but it is not
right to defend yourself, even when your unstated intent is to assist the group
by warming others of similar mistakes. A simple apology and acceptance of
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the blame would have been appropriate. In contrast, for Richard, to have
merely apologized would have seemed to him to be subservient, unmanly. His
culture had taught him to despise such behavior.
Case 41:
Corporations operating abroad can experience serious problems if they
ignore the cultural realities of their local workers.
Multinational corporations develop geographically diverse networks of
operations in search of increased profit and corporate value via the process of
internalization of costly transactions. Cultural distance between the
headquarters and various units of the network has a profound impact on the
success of failure of this value-seeking process.
As mentioned in the case, a tea break in England can take a half-hour per
man, which seems time-consuming for Americans. In search of profit, the
managers of the U.S manufacturing firm tried to speed up the break to ten
minutes, and the pint sized container was replaced by a five-ounce cup.
Nevertheless, what they believed was a morale-building message imploring
greater dedication to the job and loyalty to the company seemed to be a
violation of human rights for workers in the machine factory. Workers
boycotted the company and the factory never did get back into production,
even though the tea-brewing machine was hauled out. Due to the cultural
distance between two countries and lack of communication between the
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managers and workers, the U.S. company finally closed down.
Case 42:
The story of Lincoln Electric is a cautionary tale of how the chairman and
executives painfully learned the lessons of culture they needed to know to
operate overseas. Culture plays an important role in doing business. The
underlying reason for Hastings` failure was a poor understanding of cultural
differences. We can see this point from the following aspects.
First, the bonus system meant little to European workers, while bonuses
made up half the U.S employees` annual salary. Second, it is difficult to
penetrate a country’s market where people are loyal to domestically
produced goods. Third, lower level people are looked down on in Europe.
Fourth, European workers have a month of vacation in the summer, during
which production gears down. Last but not least, no one in the company had
personal experience in Europe.
The five aspects analyzed above are key points in doing business across
countries, which Hastings hadn’t realized. Only by taking cultural differences
into consideration could Hastings be successful in doing business.
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